Travis
D. Else
Critical
Reflection #7/Learning Unit #1
November
17, 2012
The Spirits
in Early Jewish and Christian Literature
A Critical
Reflection of Chad T. Pierce’s Spirits
and the Proclamation of Christ
While Pierce’s tome is generally a
study on 1 Peter 3:18-22, and most particularly focused on sin and punishment
traditions in early Jewish and Christian literature, it presents an outstanding
overview of “the spirits” in the ancient world. In many ways, Pierce’s book
bridges the psychology of Wink and the cosmology of Arnold.[1]
Instead of speculating on how to name and understand the powers centuries
removed from ancient myth (per Wink), or focusing on a literal understanding of
the myths as understood by the ancients (per Arnold), Pierce looks to the literary
traditions of Jews and Christians and how those traditions shaped the Biblical
writers. In the reflections that follow, I hope to elucidate a better
understanding of the Biblical and Apocryphal depictions of spirits.
A significant portion of Pierce’s
writing is focused on the identity of the “spirits in prison” to whom Christ
made his proclamation in 1 Peter 3:19. When did Christ make his proclamation to
the spirits? Who were these spirits (pneumata)?
For what were these spirits imprisoned?
A very traditional understanding of
Christ’s proclamation, and the view I was taught growing up, maintains that
Christ made his proclamation to the spirits between his death and resurrection
(triduum mortis). In other words,
Christ descended into hell upon his death, during which time he made his
proclamation, before his resurrection. Even this view segments into different
strands of thought: 1) that Christ “offered salvation to the sinners of Noah’s
generation who had perished in the flood”[2];
2) that Christ proclaimed salvation to “Noah’s contemporaries who had repented
of their sins prior to the demise”[3];
that Christ proclaimed condemnation “to the unrepentant sinners of Noah’s
generation.”[4] In
each case, it is important to note that the spirits to whom Christ is
proclaiming either salvation or condemnation are the spirits of physically dead humans in the underworld.
An alternative view emerged in the
Western Church in the fourth century, maintaining that Christ did not undergo a
cosmic journey during the triduum mortis.
Rather, the proclamation recorded in 1 Peter 3:19 was the pre-existent Christ’s
message of repentance delivered to sinners during Noah’s generation. “The
predominant interpretation of the Western Church from Augustine up to the
Reformation understood verse 19 as a projection of Christ back to the days of
Noah.”[5]
This allegorical understanding of the text suggests that the spirits to whom
Christ made his proclamation were not dead humans, but humans still alive
however imprisoned by sin during the time of Noah.
A third broad interpretation of when Christ’s proclamation was made
(with reference points to who the
spirits were and what was proclaimed)
developed in the late nineteenth century. According to this interpretation,
“Christ’s proclamation to the spirits is a message given not to living or
deceased humans but to fallen angels stemming from the primordial story found
in Genesis 6:1-4.”[6]
This interpretation found its source material in the fallen angel myth of 1 Enoch. Subsequently, Christ’s proclamation
was understood to be largely one of condemnation to the fallen angels and
giants imprisoned since the flood. Three views of when this proclamation took
place (triduum mortis, the
pre-existent Christ, during the ascension) have been held within this
interpretation. Making liberal use of William Dalton’s material, Pierce here
suggests that the primary concern for the author of 1 Peter to make his claims
was not to identify specifics concerning when or where Christ made his
proclamation. “The author of 1 Peter is concerned about human salvation, and
this passage informs his readers that the evil spirits are now powerless to
harm the Christian believer. The preaching serves to rescue humans from evil
angelic powers; its point is not to offer the spirits salvation but to bring
them under subjugation.”[7]
Using 1 Enoch, Pierce then sets out
to determine who, exactly, these fallen angels and giants are. That is the
primary focus of my query.
Using Jewish and Christian
literature dating from the third century B.C.E. through the second century
C.E., Pierce seeks to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the fallen
angel and giant punishment traditions that would have influenced the writing of
1 Peter. Special status is given to the apocryphal book 1 Enoch, particularly chapters 1-36, commonly referred to as “The
Book of Watchers.” This initial section of 1
Enoch expands on the story of Genesis 6:1-4, and establishes for Pierce a
literary and cultural history that must be accounted for in interpreting 1 Peter
3:18-22.
“The Enochic corpus describes the
sin, judgment, and punishment of the watchers, their offspring the giants, as
well as humans.”[8]
The sins of fallen angels recorded in the The
Book of Watchers are two-fold: 1) improper sexual relationships with human
women resulting in the birth of giants (nephilim);
and 2) the revelation of heavenly secrets to humans. “Bands or armies of
angels, often because of their illicit union with humans or for their
revelation of hidden things, are imprisoned or punished.”[9]
In this view, humans are largely depicted as passive victims. For this reason,
this tradition is held to be distinct from and pre-dating the flood motif of
Genesis 6:1-4. However, humans are indicted in the end, as “the concept of
sinful angelic instruction allows for humanity to become recipients of the
sinful situation described in Genesis 6.”[10]
While this essay is not intended to be an exegetical work, understanding the
thesis that sin and punishment traditions of angels pre-date the Biblical material
helps form a better understanding of the traditions that influenced the writer
of 1 Peter 3:18-22. Furthermore, such material allows for the identification of
the spirits in Genesis, 1 Peter, and the apocryphal literature.
The giant offspring of illicit angel/human unions are
punished for the violence they carry out against each other, against the earth,
and against humans. In 1 Enoch, God
commissions Gabriel to punish the giants “by means of a war in which the giants
ultimately destroy each another.”[11]
Already in The Book of Watchers,
posits Pierce, there is an expanding and shifting understanding of the
responsibility for sin. Where punishment is meted out by God to the fallen
angels and giants, humans are now included in the punishment tradition. Responsibility for evil is given to cosmic
beings and to humans. The form of punishment for each of these groups varies:
incarceration in an unspecified place until the final punishment on the Day of
Judgment (fallen angels); mutually-assured destruction through war and/or the
allowance of continued destructive behavior (giants)[12];
and a great flood and/or imprisonment of the soul (humanity). “All human
spirits are awaiting some form of eschatological judgment…[The Book of Watchers] contains material which could provide the
basis for imprisoned human spirits awaiting a future sentence of either
salvation or punishment.”[13]
In each case, the agents carrying out God’s judgments
are angels. The primary battle in the cosmos is that of God’s angels (led by
Michael) against the rebel fallen angels. The fallen angels are identified in
various ways and led by various antagonists (Satan, Shemihaza, Asael, Belial, Mastema,
et al). While the giants are destroyed, their spirits survive. These spirits
“are described as leading astray, committing violence, and rising up against
men and women from which they come…[and] will do so until the final judgment.”[14]
Humans are held in captivity for eternity or until the final judgment.
A conflation of the sin, punishment,
and identity traditions in 1 Enoch
suggests that “the spirits” refer to angels, giants, and humans. “The
author/redactor of BW clearly
utilizes ‘spirits’ to refer to angels (both good and evil), giants, and
humans.”[15] A
very general line of thought suggests that fallen angels initiated sin in the
world and are ultimately responsible for all sin; that their diabolical
offspring persisted in destruction and rebellion and, while destroyed, have
been allowed to continue in persecuting humans; and that humans, having been
taught to sin, are more than happy to oblige and continue in rebellion against
God. In any case, Pierce here concludes “all three entities fit within the
description of the recipients of Christ’s proclamation in 1 Pet. 3:19.”[16]
It should be noted that human sin,
while not acknowledged in 1 Enoch as
extensively, is found primarily in idolatry, power quests, blasphemy,
persecuting the righteous, and trampling on the poor. While fallen angels are
primarily responsible for sin and the spirits of giants continue to entice
humans to sin, humans have followed their lead and persist in sinfulness.
Humans are culpable, and this culpability is found largely in people of
power—kings, rulers, and the powerful. There are echoes in Parables (1 Enoch 38-69) of
Wink’s thesis of powers and principalities existing in the interiority of
thrones, rulers, and authorities. In other words, while rebellion is a cosmic
reality, it takes its shape in the structures of power.
This tradition of sin and punishment
continues to unfold historically in early Jewish and Christian writings, most
notably in Jubilees. “The role of
evil spirits in Jubilees is to lead
humanity astray…in two distinct areas: the shedding and consumption of blood as
well as the threat of syncretism with the nations and idolatry.”[17]
Murder, uncleanness, and idolatry are
sin in the Old Testament. Demons are the diabolical forces that lead humans
into these sins. While demons are active, enticing people to sin,
responsibility lies with humans. Humans are not passive victims, but corrupted
participants.
Interestingly, in both Jubilees and Baruch, there is some divergence as to the role of God: “While
Mastema is in charge of evil spirits in Jubilees,
it is unclear whether he performs this duty as an agent of God or as his enemy”[18];
[in 3 Baruch] rather than being evil
entities with their own agenda, demons are controlled by angels (and ultimately
God), and are thus agents of God rather than part of a separate force of evil.”[19]
This is a rather significant evolution from the early 1 Enoch tradition.
A continued evolution of the source
and identity of evil is found in the Apocalypse
of Abraham. Asael from The Book of
Watchers is identified with Azazel, “who forsook his place in heaven for
earth: the place of his sin.”[20]
“Azazel controls evil spirits as well as the wrath and trials that befall
humanity.”[21]
“God gives him dominion over humans who choose evil.”[22]
This is evidence of further conflation of the 1 Enoch tradition and “satan” in Genesis 3. The Qumran literature
begins to reveal a more classical understanding of evil and sin traditions. For
instance, “[supernatural] beings in the War
Scroll, like humans, are portrayed in dualistic terms. On the one hand
there are the good angels, who reside with God in heaven…[conversely] evil angels
exist under the command of Belial.”[23]
In every one of these cases there is a conflation of identities for the
spirits—both spiritual and human.
The intent of this essay is not to
re-present Pierce’s exhaustive study of the Jewish and early Christian literature
concerning sin and punishment traditions. My intent is to trace, however
nominally, the varied traditions that were conflated throughout the period. A
movement from the source of evil being cosmic to human (with myriad variances)
continues through apocalyptic literature.
The purposes behind such conflation are varied, as well—to understand
evil; to protect God; to assign the reality of evil to an appropriate source
(monotheistically, henotheistically, cosmically, or humanly); and to correct
human behavior.
In the New Testament literature,
there is an increasing dualism suggested (good versus evil). A question
remains, however, in regard to how the spirits work. Does the heavenly battle
between good and evil correlate to human events? Pierce posits that
“[Revelation] unites human and cosmic evil…[and] describes the punishment of
both cosmic and human agents of evil.”[24]
The ontological view in Revelation is that “earthly realities are mirrored by
cosmic ones.”[25]
Rome (and Babylon) is depicted as an agent of Satan. Revelation details the
eschatological punishment of both Rome (Babylon) and the spiritual powers that
stand behind it. Both fallen angels (including Satan) and evil humans will be
judged, thrown into a burning lake of fire where they will reside forever.
Throughout the entire ancient corpus
Pierce utilizes, it is clear that “the spirits” refers to fallen angels,
giants, evil spirits, demons, humans, and other cosmic entities. “It is evident
that there is no consensus in early Jewish and Christian literature regarding
the identity of evil spirits, those who experience incarceration as a form of
punishment, or those responsible for sinning in the days of Noah.”[26]
For the author of 1 Peter, it is primarily evil spirits but also sinful humans
who are persecuting the church and thus contained in his view. Evil spirits,
led by their leader (Satan), continue to entice humans to sin. So while Satan’s
role can be found primarily in causing disease and insanity, or attempting to
lead humanity away from God by trial and temptation, his role as addressed in 1
Peter 3 is in persecuting God’s church.
Lastly, Pierce considers the intent
of the author in 1 Peter 3:18-22 in determining the purpose of Christ’s
proclamation. Considering that the early church was being enticed by both
cosmic forces (disease, trial, temptation) and human forces (Rome) Pierce
states this purpose as such: To have Christ proclaiming a message of victory
over the powers. “Christ’s message of victory was intended to subjugate evil in
all of its forms, both cosmic and human.”[27]
Rome is given its authority by Satan. Human forces of oppression and
persecution are linked with cosmic forces of darkness. “The ultimate hope for
the recipients of the epistle would be that Christ had been victorious and
subjugated all types of evil, including human and cosmic, under his authority.”[28]
In 1 Peter 3:18-22, Christ preached
a message of condemnation to the fallen angels upon his ascent and exaltation.
All evil is now under his command. While final victory is assured, it is not
yet complete. “Thus, evil still exists in the world, but it does so now in a
defeated state as they await final judgment.”[29]
This is a word of hope for people living in persecution: that victory over evil
is assured even as they struggle against evil. Forces of evil, whether cosmic
or human, are ultimately under the authority and lordship of Jesus Christ.
Fallen angels have been defeated by the death and resurrection of Christ. It
follows that the human agents of these forces of evil are also defeated. Christ
is victorious! That is the Good News!
Pierce closes with a short chapter
on baptism, rightly remarking that “baptism is not a magic rite in and of
itself, but rather it initiates the believer into a new existence and community
in which Christ has subjugated the powers of evil. As long as the new believers
keep God’s commands they will remain free from the devil’s control.”[30]
Through faith, we are connected to Jesus Christ, who has subjected the powers
and evil forces of darkness to his lordship and authority. His people are
victorious in and through his death and resurrection. This is a word of good
news and hope for those who are suffering, persecuted, oppressed, and tried.
[1] See Walter Wink, Naming the
Powers: The Language of Power in the New Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress
Press, 1984), and Clinton Arnold, Powers
of Darkness: Principalities and Powers in Paul’s Letters (Downers Grove:
InterVarsity Press, 1993).
[2] Chad T. Pierce, Spirits and
the Proclamation of Christ: 1 Peter 3:18-22 in Light of Sin and Punishment
Traditions in Early Jewish and Christian Literature (Philadelphia: Coronet
Books, 2011), 3.
[3] Ibid., 6.
[4] Ibid., 10.
[5] Ibid., 11.
[6] Ibid., 14.
[7] Ibid., 18. While this is a summary of Dalton’s view, Pierce
affirms by writing “this work supports the generally accepted conclusion…[that
1 Peter 3:18-22 was written] in order to comfort and support a persecuted
church” (21).
[8] Ibid., 31. Watchers/fallen angels (ben-elohim).
[9] Ibid, 32.
[10] Ibid., 34.
[11] Ibid., 36.
[12] Pierce rightfully points out that such a war would have been
understood as a genuine historical event played out on earth (p. 42; c.f.
Cullman, Wink).
[13] Ibid., 45.
[14] Ibid, 49.
[15] Ibid., 54.
[16] Ibid., 55.
[17] Ibid., 117.
[18] Ibid.
[19] Ibid., 129. This seems closer in line with Wink’s
view of Satan.
[20] Ibid., 131.
[21] Ibid.
[22] Ibid.
[23] Ibid., 146.
[24] Ibid., 165.
[25] Ibid.
[26] Ibid., 192.
[27] Ibid., 214.
[28] Ibid., 215.
[29] Ibid., 224.
[30] Ibid., 235.
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